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Project Nr. 4051-69207 On the Way between Persecution and
Recognition. Forms and Views of Social Exclusion and
Integration: Yenish, Sinti and Roma in Switzerland
from 1800 up to Present Time |
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Research Time:
1. Juni 2003 - 31. Mai 2006
Project Leader: Thomas Huonker
Co-Researcher: Stéphane Laederich, Venanz Nobel, Samuel Hegnauer
Board: Hedy Betschart, May Bittel, S. Borri, David Burri, Cornel
Ciurariu, Michele Galizia, François Gerzner, Heiko Haumann, Stefan Heinichen,
Robert Huber, Daniel Huber, Helena Kanyar Becker, Thomas Kessler, Cristina
Kruck, Vreni Müller-Hemmi, Kemal Sadulov, Paul Schirmer, Ernst Spychiger,
Ruth-Gaby Vermot-Mangold, Patrick Vogt, Uschi Waser, Willi Wottreng, Regula
Ziegler
Project grants: Swiss National Fund
(75%), Swiss Cantons (25%)
- Project Summary
The project intends to present
and describe in details the different phases of the exclusion and integration
of Jenische, Sinti and Rroma in Switzerland and in border regions. This study
will be conducted from multi-cultural and minority-based historical
perspective.
The temporal
distribution of such phenomena, the therein contained conflicts, laws and
developments is broken by short periods of disruptions (1800, 1850, 1920, 1970)
where the behaviour towards these minorities changed. These changes will be
analysed especially in view of the parallel nation building in Switzerland and
the resulting homogeneisation and resulting exclusion tendencies.
The driving forces of
these disruptions, the views of the people involved in these changes, the
concepts used are in conflict and interaction with the somewhat slower and more
continuous general behaviour in the periods preceding those changes. The local
differences in the culture and views of the majority need to be integrated into
this analysis (border areas / interior of Switzerland; French, German and
Italian speaking parts of that country; Catholic / Protestant; rural /
urban; social standing).
On the other hand, the
specificities, common behaviour, adaptation and self-views of Jenische, Sinti,
and Rroma and their sub-groups are to be taken into consideration. This in
conscious contrast to the used terminologies – often pejorative and
non-differentiating - prevailing in the different phases in the scientific,
political or media discourse (“Gauner”, “Homeless”, “Vagabund”, “Zigeuner”,
“Itinerant salesman”, “Unwelcome”, “Foreigner”, “Genetically inferior”,
“Travellers” etc.). These terms and the
labelling of these minorities, their grouping under “one hat” negating their
different cultures and ways of life did not further mutual understanding. In
more recent times, these elder stereotypes and generalisations gave way to a
partially romantically inclined view summarised in Switzerland under the term
of “Fahrende” or “Travellers” covering all the various groups who, in the mind
of the general population are “Gypsies”, even though a majority of those are
not travellers.
The new methodologies of the Social
sciences have developed methods and become increasingly interested in these
views, often containing implicit or explicit ratings. The works of Paul Ricoeur
and Hayden White are but a reference to this interest, here in a more
meta-historical and philosophical direction, with a special interest in the
narrative structures,, self-views and temporal aspects.[i]
The cultural
differences, peculiarities and common point of these groups, their behaviour
faced with the effects of the various policies will be analysed based on
self-statements of members of these various groups. The project does not aim at
presenting all facets of these differences and common points, something which
is currently being done in new research, rather, it aims at analysing
behavioural differences pertaining to the process of integration and exclusion
based on such oral documents.
The
project does not aim at covering the entire thematic field and as such is not
to be understood in the sense of the
“histoire totale”, a form often found in the French school. However, the view
over a long period of time can be seen as sharing some of the aspects of the
school of “Annales” developed in France[ii] The differences between this project and the
concept of the advocates of the “histoire totale” is to be found first in the
somewhat more critical approach of this project towards sources but mostly due to
the fact that in the timeframe and means at our disposal, the underlying
concept of an encyclopedic knowledge – the basis of an “histoire totale” – is
certainly beyond our means. In addition, the structure itself of the wider NFP
51 project, with several subprojects covering different views as well as many
new or newer sources on the topic at hand means that several parts, topics,
regions and regional differences as well as several historical timeframes have
already been covered or are currently being researched. Our aim is thus to
cover some of the gaps that have so far attracted little – if any – attention
and cannot be interpreted as being a major “tell-it-all” endeavour.
While
a consequent part of this research will involve traditional archival activities,
we will also use oral history, i.e. the access to the central questions of
integration and exclusion via testimonies of individuals of the various groups.
This approach will be an important part of our work and will allow us to
contrast the different views and opinions expressed in written sources to their
effect on individuals. This contrast and the use of testimonies allows one a
deeper analysis of the processes as well as a deeper understanding of the
long-term evolution and the various critical phases, especially in the
understanding of the forces at hand, be they continuity or forces of change.
On the one hand, the
program of interviews will cover a broad sample so as to encompass a broad base
and gain a general overview of the topic in its variations. The Ariadne thread
of those interviews will be loosely based on the chronological and biographical
data from the interviewed people. This will allow the researchers to dwell at
will on some specific topics, depending on the subject at hand. These loosely
structured interviews will be used on the one hand as a background for the
research, for example in the reconstruction of individual destinies, completing
the results obtained in more traditional fashion. These interviews will be
partially transcribed.
On
the other hand, a small sample of interviews will be transcribed in their
totality and will be interpreted, commented according to the methods of the qualitative biographical research[iii].
Several
aspects of the advantages of narrative interviews over structured or
quantitative approaches – as presented by Bettina Dausien in the context of
gender – can be extended not only in the work with women of the groups at hand,
but much more generally do apply to those minorities. This constitutes a
difference to the general “Ansatz” and to the usual disinterest of the research
to the self-representation. To use this approach in a successful manner means
that one has to approach interviews not with a catalogue of specific questions
but rather, that one has to use the narrative background to ask more specific
question, clarifying the understanding on a purely ad-hoc basis. In the case of
victims, for example Rroma victims of the Holocaust, this
approach has proved much more efficient at extracting the facts and at getting
at the core of the involved processes. Not only does this allow the interviewed
a more personal narration, an especially important fact in this case, as it
allows one to gain an insight in the processes whereby the person has managed
to survive, but is allows the researcher a much wider view and to work with
cross-referencing and cross verification.
During and after the transcription, the
establishment of such cross-references as well as of a general index will allow
a critical assessment of these interviews. It will allow to research for
commonality, repetitions, specific aspects as well as to connect the referred
events to more traditional written sources. This will allow one to use transparent
criteria to select the most relevant and interesting testimonies.
Depending
on the length and interest, some of the interviews that will be realised in the
framework of this project will be selected, transcribed in full and will be
included in the presentation. A special section will be devoted to this smaller
sample and will be used to illustrate aspects of the subject of this research,
this especially for the latter timeframes in our scope. Whenever possible, the
inclusion of pertinent written sources as well as – if available – the various
dossiers of the individual at hand will be included. Amongst individuals for
which such sources are not readily available, interviews will nevertheless be
included in the presentation. These can be analysed by other means as we have
already sketched above.
Besides
the interviews that we will conduct, we will also use existing ones realised
over the last decades. It should become apparent, that the increasing
acceptance and sensibilisation of the general population towards those
minorities should and will reflect itself in their testimonies and in the
presentation thereof.
The selection of the interviewed
and the evaluation of these interviews will also analyse gender and generation
specific aspects and will be conducted along the methodology of Oral History[iv]. These interviews can
be conducted by two of the three researchers in the mother-tongue of the
subjects and thereafter translated (the
original transcriptions will be made available whenever such an interview will
be used). Due to the long term work of the researchers with organisations
and individuals of the Jenische, Sinti and Rroma in Switzerland and in Europe,
the access to a representative and qualitatively high sample of individuals is
guaranteed. It has been demonstrated by the work of the researchers at hand but
also in a more general framework, that finding members of those minorities
which are willing to be interviewed is possible whenever based on a mutual
understanding ands respect, this in spite of negative and even racist
approaches that may have been used in the past. This goal is achievable within
the timeframe of the project and within the scope the presented methodology.
This represents not only a research need but also a presentation of these minorities whose voices have for a long
time never been listened to.[v].
Oral history, in the
form of interviews over these questions recorded with various members of these
minorities will take an important place in this work and will complete the
views presented in references and archives. These interviews will also take
into account generation and gender differences within these communities and are
in line with the new methods of oral history research. Two of the three
researchers will be able to conduct these interviews in original language. Due
to their long term work with various organisations representing Jenische, Rroma
and Sinit in Switzerland and other countries, it will be possible to find a
representative sample of people to interview.
1.1
Account of the State of
research in the Field
In
the old Swiss Federation, foreigners ,
especially "Zeginer", "Heiden" and Jews were associated
under generally pejorative epithets such as "Herrenlose Gesindel" or
"Vagabonds" and were expelled often with brutal methods. The exclusion methods that were applied to those
“Vagabonds” were branding with hot iron, flogging, slavery in the galleys, were
declared “vogelfrei”, that is, that anybody could kill them without any
penalty, were hung when they managed to return to the country. The exclusion
methods against Jews, on the other hand, were the ghettos, forbidden trades and
activities, special clothing distinguishing them from the general population,
periodical and often violent pogroms, up to the confiscation of property and
the stake.
These
measures against “Vagabonds” are documented in the resolutions passed by the
‘Tagsatzung” – the main organ of the old government of Switzerland – as well as
in may local legal documents that also document the various pogroms against
Jews. Legal residency was forbidden or at least limited, travellers were for
example only tolerated for a forthnight
per year during the so-called "Fekkerchilbi" - a market- in Gersau. Jews were forbidden
to settle anywhere in Switzerland but for two small villages in Argau - in
Lengnau and in Endingen.
Such measures remained
in place after the failure of the liberal settlement policy well into the
second half of the 19th century. The emancipation of the Jews started in 1866
with the right to settle and the equality in front of the law and continued in
1874 with the freedom of religion.
In the first half of the
XIXth century, correctional or social institutions, even prisons were created ,
often with the official goal of the internment of “Vagabonds”. In the reglement
of the first Swiss police corps, the so-called “Landjäger”, the surveillance
and expulsion of “travellers” stood at the centre of their duty. In their book
centred on the region of Bern, Meier and Wolfensberg wrote that “With the
institutions and the police corps, the bourgeois state created until the middle
of the XIXth century, the instruments of a successful repression of the lower
Vagabonds stratum of society, an instrument that prevented them from living how
they chose”
Shortly after the
creation of the new Swiss Federal State, starting in 1851, people without
official papers and travellers were arrested in the so-called
"Vagantenfahndung" - a search and arrest wave against
"Vagabunds", photographed and of course questioned. This procedure
decided, often against the will of the cantons and localities, who was to be
granted citizenship and who was to be deported. These methods have already been
described extensively in the literature.
Which families, groups
or individuals were granted citizenship, which ones were expelled needs to be
investigated both in view of the applied criteria and in view of a
representative sample of cases. It seems that, generally speaking, neither
Sinta nor Rroma had a chance to be granted citizenship.
As in the case of other
people without citizenship, Travellers only had for the first time the official
rights of and parenthood – something
that was to be used extensively against them later. Some well known Jenische
families managed to obtain their citizenship papers well in advance of the
campaign to force settle them or to expel them. Nevertheless, they often
remained unwelcome second-class citizen. In both cases, when they either
acquired or were granted citizenship in a commune – mostly in the mountains –
they often had no access to the usual citizen rights (grazing cattle, cutting
wood etc.) and as such were subjected to a precarious economical
situation. One will need to analyse
whether they were limited in their ability to work in their new communes, –
taking mostly menial farm work – and whether they managed to acquire property
or gain a political influence.
They often kept their
traditional way of life, as travelling salesmen. They were exposed to the
authorities' chicanery, for example in the need of having "Patents"
to exercise their trade and specially taxed by the state. In addition, the
federal authorities forbade families with school-aged children to travel. This
might have been cause by overlapping concerns, for example that of eradicating
this way of life, contrasted with the wish to help the children succeed in
school.
The mere existence of the Jenische in Switzerland was
thus precarious, both financially and in their juridical status. Their language
and culture were threatened. A Swiss criminologist wrote in 1864 "Die
Geschichte des Gaunerthums in der Schweiz" - the history of petty criminals in Switzerland - a title that
hints at the widely accepted views that Jenish is a language of criminals - a
slang, and that travellers were generally to be looked upon under the suspicion
of criminality. In this work, he states that "Only the best able […] still
knew some Jenisch words.”
In view of the already existing laws such as in
Lucerne (1825) whereby Jenische children were taken away from their parents and
of the still current forced settlement, von Reding wrote: “What still can be
saved from these people will be seen when all have the truly homeless have been
raised to the full citizen status by the enlightened action of the federal authorities
and when their children have been given a normal education.”
Already during the 19th century, many of
the parents and children of the so-called “traveller families” landed in the
newly created “Correctional” or “Saviour” institutions or in the orphanages and
institutions for the poor of those communes where they were force-settled. This
ever growing “Archipelago” of institutions soon became one of the largest farm
business in Switzerland. There are but few studies on some of these
institutions, but a modern analyse of the social history of these institutions
is still missing. This project will cover some of these institutions, insofar
as they are relevant to our goals. For example, Belechasse, Realta, Witzwil as
well as some other institutions of various communes who had become the home of
these Jenische such as Einsiedeln or Obervaz.
From the en of the 19th century onward,
something that was to take its full meaning later on, the institutionalisation
of travellers into “homes” did not happen solely on the grounds of poverty or
on social grounds but more and more on the grounds of psychiatry. The doctor in
psychiatry, Josef Jörger from the commune of Vals, where a Jenische family was
settled for many years was the precursor and justified this view through his
decades of research that resulted in the publication of "Psychiatrischen
Familiengeschichten"(Jörger 1905, 1918, 1919) – psychiatric family
histories. These publication, besides genealogical trees, also contained a
glossary of the Jenische language.
Central actors of the “Eugenics” movement such as
Auguste Forel, Ernst Bleuler, Ernst Rüdin and Alfred Ploetz were helped to
publish Jörger’s work in return of which, Jörger took over the Eugenic view of
the separation into “erblich Minderwertige” – genetically inferiors – and
“erblich Höherwertige” – genetically superior. He of course counted Jenische to
the former class.
The well know Dr.
Ritter, one of the central figures in the persecutions of Sinti and Roma in
Germany under Hitler, referred in may of his works to Jörge’s research
In 1924, Jörger
recommended the systematic removal of children of “Vagabonds” families, a
procedure that was to be institutionalised under the auspices of the “Hilfswerk
für die Kinder der Landstrasse”, a sub organisation of the Foundation Pro
Juventute, with tentative co-operation of the federal, cantonal and communal
authorities. These vagabonds, in the eyes of the government and of Pro
Juventute were a “dark speck on the cultural order of Switzerland of which that
country was so proud of”.
The founder and leader of the this “Foundation”,
Alfred Siegfried, via questionnaires to the authorities, created a list and a
genealogical tree of Jenische families and calculated the number of children to
be removed. Until 1973, the foundation,
according to nowadays available numbers, removed 619 children from their
families. Until now, only a handful of cases were comprehensively studied – in
relation with official documents, only two so far, the story of branch of this
organisation written by Leimgruber, Meier and Sablonier (financed by the
confederation) and the memories in three volumes of Peter Paul Moser who
included whatever documents from Pro-Juventute he could obtain on his case as
well as the work of Graziella Wenger-Waser who reconstructed the life of her
brother whom she only learned about at his burial and which is based on the
testimonies of people who knew him as well as on its dossier from Pro-Juventute[vi]. Our project will concentrate on the
question as to how and why certain cantons show a large number of interned
people, while others have almost none and will focus on cantons that are
financing this project.
In many Swiss cantons, other institutions, such as the
social and welfare authorities or the non governmental “Seraphische Liebeswerk”
followed suit and also removed children from their families. This removal of
children and associated measures such as the interdiction of marriage, forced
abortion and sterilisation for “genetically inferior” people occurred in
Switzerland a bit earlier than in other countries and concerned not only
Jenische but also other groups and were made considerably easier through the
introduction of the Civil Law Book of 1912. Nevertheless, many of these near
abductions occurred in a legal grey zone.
After the first few random tests, a fully
comprehensive research of the Welfare documents, of the various
institutions is required. This goes
beyond the sole scope of this project and should and will hopefully be included
in other NFP-51 projects. Many institutions were involved in the persecution of
Jenische: Welfare authorities, for example the well known one of Bellechasse in
the Canton of Fribourg, were many Jenische were interned over long period; many
Psychiatric institutions in several cantons etc. The archives of these institutions were, with a few exceptions,
not available for historical research, although this is meanwhile high on the
agenda of historical research.
Institutions such as Witzwil, Thorberg or other homes
for women and children also played an important role in the exclusion of
foreign Travellers, Sinti and Roma. The liberalism of the 19th
century, in the name of free travel, finally managed to remove the interdiction
in Switzerland of the entry of travellers. But, already in 1888, the border
cantons – with a concordat, then the federal authorities in 1906 returned to a
much stricter view on the entry of “Gypsies”. The basis of this “defence”
strategy were institutionalised in 1913. They covered the arrest, the
internment in institutions with separation of families, registration and
expulsion of all “Gypsies” whereby it was the police’s responsibility to
determine who was or was not a Gypsy. The justification of these measures fell
under a “Threat” of the State due to those travellers. These regulations
remained in place from 1913 till 1973.
The expulsion of three
Sinti families failed due to the opposition of the neighbouring states – up to
near military confrontation at the borders – and these families were tolerated
and granted a stay in 1936 . They only obtained their Swiss citizenship in the
last decades of the 20th century.
The Swiss register of Gypsies was closely connected
with other Institutions such as the Munich “Zigeunerzentralle” that was later
transferred in 1936 to Berlin in the Reichssicherheitshauptamt. Another
institutions with whom the Swiss co-operated was the Interpol International
Gypsy register, transferred in 1940 from Vienna to Berlin. These registers were
part of the foundation of the annihilation of Roma and Sinti and of travellers
in Nazi Germany.
The Swiss “defence”
against foreign Gypsies did not only remain in force during World War Two, where
it prevented refugees to escape from the Holocaust, but it lasted till 1972 and
was only discontinued under pressure of diplomats and of the “Zigeunermission”.
Without knowledge of the authorities, many Roma from
Eastern Europe and the Balkan, Manouches, Sinti and Gitanos nevertheless
managed to settle in Switzerland after the war, as early as the 1950’s. These
were often either refugees or foreign workers and settled in the whole of
Switzerland. One of them, Jan Cibula, is one of the co-founders of the
International Romani Union (1971).
Only after the closure
of the “Kinder der Landstrasse” program, in 1973 – mostly thanks to the resolve
of one single journalist, Hans Caprez – were Jenische organisations to be
founded. The first one (1975) is the “Radgenossenschaft der Landstrasse” whose
newsletter, “Scharotl” continuously appears since that date. This gave the
Swiss Jenische a platform in which they could expose their memories, views, and
it proves to be an important source documenting the change of attitudes and the
growing recognition of Jenishe, Rroma and Sinti in Switzerland, a change that
started in the 1970’s.
Prio to this date, and
with the notable exception of the writings of Albert Minder, a Jenische from
Bern, there are almost no documents that present the views of this minority.
One has to rely solely on police and institutional interviews and document to
actually reconstruct the views of the Jenische prior to 1970. Interviews with
elder travellers will allow one to contribute to this reconstruction of the
views and attitudes of this minority.
Only after the break that occurred in the 1970, to which the writings of
Sergius Golowin contributed, does one see the publication of various memoirs of
Jenische. Having organised themselves allowed Jenische to recover and declare
their identity after years of repression. These memoirs and views of Jenische,
Sinti and Rroma will form an important part of this project.
The views and desires of
the “Radgenossenschaft der Landstrasse” as well as of other organisations such
as the “"Fahrendes Kulturzentrum”, “Naschet Jenische”, “Romano Dialog” or
“Schinagel” have contributed to a change of attitudes in the media, politics
and, to a lesser extent among the general population. The attitude towards them
is getting more positive and there are more and more accepted, although in many
places this only happens hesitantly and they still often incur setbacks in
their actions. The old and new wishes of these organisations are: More places
to stay with their caravans; removal of the required patents to exercise their
trades, a restriction on the works of travellers that stand is stark contrast
to the liberal nature of their trade and of the use of creative niches in the
economy; payments to the victims of the “Foundation Kinder der Landstrasse”;
state subsidies for organisations, support for the arts, music, events etc.;
exhibitions and so on.
One of the goals of this
project is actually to document and understand the changes of attitudes towards
and representation in the press and in politics of Jenische, Roma and Sinti –
especially in view of political correctness, continuity of stereotypes –
positive and negative, romanticism etc.
In the last few years,
the Swiss federal authorities have taken a leading role in supporting and
mediation on behalf of the Jenische among others, with the publication of
various reports (Bericht 1983,
Zürcher-Berther 1988, Leimgruber/Meier/Sablonier) or in the form of a
parliamentary decision on the creation of a foundation Stiftung "Zukunft
für Fahrende" – the result of the decisive action of Ernst Sieber. The
Swiss parliament did not ratify the ILO convention 169 on the rights of
“indigenous” people on the grounds it would have resulted in a creating a
platform on which the collective rights of travellers could be claimed; a
parliamentary report of April 2001 on the application in Switzerland of the
European parliament resolution on the protection of national minorities
nevertheless recognised for the first time the existence of Swiss travellers.
This report also refers to the wishes for the removal of direct and indirect
discrimination against this minority. There is a dire need for action on the
authorities’ side, especially at the cantonal and communal level, to apply the
new anti-racist norms as defined, but also to satisfy the requirements of the
rights of minorities as agreed by the European commission and the UNO. One
needs to document differences and inconsistencies of action within the various
organs of the government – between the human right specialists of the EDA and
the various local and cantonal entities.
The efforts of
Switzerland to account for its acts has a certain pioneer role, especially in
view of the fact that, with the exception of a newly founded association in Austri
– Jenisches Kulturverband – Jenische outside of Switzerland have no association
fighting for their recognition of for the recognition of the deeds that they
have been submitted to.
In
academic circles, several works, a few of which not yet published are a
testimony of the current interest to give a voice to the minorities and to
their increasing integration[vii].
To summarise, the study
of the current and earlier situation of Jenische, Sinti and Rroma in both
Switzerland and in neighbouring countries has long been a neglected field of
research. In addition, one needs to correct the often biased methods and
conclusions of many a former study in which these minorities have been
slandered and misrepresented.
1.2
Accounts of one’s own
Research in the Field
a.
Thomas Huonker – the project leader –
made a first attempt in his book published by the Radgenossenschaft -
“Fahrendes Volk – verfolgt und verfremt” to let members of this minority
express themselves. In this book, taking an equal amount of space one finds on
the one hand an historical account and on the other, 11 interviews (5 men, 6
women) of Jenische. This publication is one of the earliest that tackles the
question of Eugenics in Switzerland. After many other publications among which
a school book and work as a consultant in various documentaries on Travellers,
followed work on behalf of the Bergier commission. This book was first
published as a report in 2001 in Bern and then as book with the title “Roma,
Sinti, Jenische. Schweizerische
Zigeunerpolitik zur Zeit des Nationalsozialismus” and was written together with
Regula Ludi. It documents the
“defense” against the entry of these minorities into Switzerland between 1913
and 1972 as well as their expulsion during the times of the Holocaust. In 2002, upon request of the “Sozialdepartements der Stadt Zürich” a
report called „Anstaltseinweisungen, Kindswegnahmen, Eheverbote,
Sterilisationen, Kastrationen. Fürsorge, Zwangsmassnahmen, ‚Eugenik’ und
Psychiatrie in Zürich zwischen 1890 und 1970“ was published, covering various
aspect of the social and institutional repression against Jenische. The destiny of Jenische that had to suffer some
of these measures is extensively documented.
b.
Stephane Laederich has been working with
Rroma for over twelve years, first as a free-lance project manager in Eastern
Europe for various NGOs and for the last 5 years as executive director of the
Rroma Foundation. He is currently publishing a comprehensive book on Rroma,
their history, language, various groups, traditions (1’400 pages) together with
a Russian Rroma linguist Lev Tcherenkov of the Institute of Natural and
Cultural Heritage in Moscow. Beside this publication, he has published several
reports on the situation of Rroma in various countries as well as held several
conferences on the subject. He has been teaching at the University of Basel
(Historischen Seminar) on this subject in the Summer Semester 2002. He is
currently preparing another publication on the dialect of the Russian, Polish
and Baltic Rroma.
c. Venanz Nobel has been active for the last
twenty years in human right and public relation work on behalf of Jenische
Sinti and Rroma in both Switzerland and in other countries. He has been an active member of both the Radgenossenschaft
der Landsrtasse as well as of the Zigeuner-Kulturzentrum. He was the
co-producer of a documentary film on Jenische
(“Abfaahre, immer nume abfaahre", 1984). Since then,
in numerous publications, he has devoted himself to documenting the situation
of Jenische in Switzerland. Besides this, he also works as antiquarian and book
seller. Especially relevant among his more recent work, one finds
“Bitte recht freundlich...!”,
“Über die Zigeuner”,“die Fotographie und meinen Zwiespalt”,(in: Urs Walder, Nomaden in der Schweiz, Zürich 1999), as
well as his conferences at the university of Basle, his text on
“Jenische Geschichte und die Betonjenischen” soon to appear as a
book and his conference at the Swiss National Exhibition.
1.3
Detailed research Plan
1.3.1 General Scope and Goal of the Project
The
project’s goals and scope centre on the analysis of the perception, prejudices
against – be they positive or negative - and situation of Rroma, Sinti and
non-Rroma groups such as the Jenische in Switzerland.
Since our project focuses on a
relatively long period of time – spanning the mid XIXth century to the present
days – the aim will be to identify relatively long phases where continuity of
attitudes, laws and views prevailed as well as to identify and analyse in
greater depth the relatively short periods of historical breaks in this
continuum. The specific changes of attitudes, laws and their origins will
constitute the scope of this latter analysis.
During
the period that interests us, there have been relatively long phases with
constant roots– be they laws, perceptions etc. – followed by rather short
periods of changes of attitudes towards Gypsies. Understanding how these
periods came to be, documenting the various factors bringing this changes are
at the core of our proposal. Our attention and research will focus on both the
self-perception of Gypsies in Switzerland, the view of the external world
towards them as well as the interactions between the two.
The
obvious phases that can easily be documented are best summarised in a small
diagram, whereby one should keep in mind that the dates indicated therein are
in no way covering all aspects of the changes of attitudes towards these
minorities.
1800 1850 1920 1970
Nation building in Switzerland and the
consequent homogenisation and exclusion Construction of the “Swiss” and of the
“Foreigner” State and para-state sponsored repression and racism Change of attitudes – romantism and
human rights
Understanding
the sources of the prevailing views and attitudes during those longer “stable”
phases as well as analysing the factors, interactions and effects at the origin
of the periods of changes are our main focus. For these short periods of
changes, an understanding of the various forces at play, be they leading or
preventing changes are of central interest.
The
various aspects and factors of interest to us in those periods of upheaval are
summarised in the following table.
|
Internal View |
External View |
State Institutions |
|
Self perception and views through interviews (now and before) |
Scientific works and theories |
Laws – the reflection of the prevailing general attitudes towards
Gypsies |
|
Oral history |
Media and their representation of Gypsies, minorities etc. |
Integration and acculturation |
|
Publications |
Public
opinion, discourses |
All levels of the state: Local, cantonal and federal |
|
Social standing |
Social standing |
Social Statutes |
|
Police and administrative interviews / documents |
Police and administrative or scientific studies interviews / documents |
|
In
our research, the state as such and the measures it undertook, the laws it issued,
will be used only as a reflection and documentation of the general prevailing
attitudes and of the forces of changes rather than as a research goal as such.
The
typical and prevailing external view of Gypsies, Travellers, Vagabonds etc. and
their influence on these various levels, institutional and others presented in
the above table will be reconstructed and analysed whereby historically
relevant factors such as nation building, nationalistic and racist ideologies
are to be integrated. It is on those
levels that the research of sources will concentrate. The gathered material
will then be analysed, cross-referenced in view of both the historical timeline
and the various levels, and will allow us exact analysis of the processes at
hand in the relevant periods. As there are bound to be many relevant documents
describing the same effects or ideas pertaining to our research, the sources
will have to be selectively chosen. Two main possibilities are open:
i.
The thorough analysis of a few selected key years, whereby all relevant
factors that brought a change of attitude that can be documented at both the
institutional level and in the external and internal view of Gypsies are
studied and a picture of the forces at hand during such changes emerges.
ii.
A follow up and analyse of attitudes or laws reflecting them over a
longer period, understanding their impact on the various opinions and social
standing, for example in the media, in public opinion and discourse etc.
The
internal view or self-perception of Gypsies (Rroma, Jenische) is to be
contrasted with the other levels. For the early part of the period at hand,
this will be most difficult for us, as oral history sources are difficult to
follow prior to ca. 1850. Written sources, such as documents, police or administrative (social workers, doctors, psychiatrists
etc.) interviews of members of these minorities will nevertheless allow us to
analyse this self-views and underscore the emerging picture.
The
information on the internal history that are extracted from such interviews
needs to be cross-checked through several sources, be these other interviews or
documents, especially when they are of an indirect form bridging several
generations. Such methodology has already been successfully applied in some
other cases, such as the departure of Lovara from Hungary and their arrival in
Russia. In that case, orally transmitted history went back to the late XIXth
century and could be reliably cross-checked for historical accuracy.
Both
the internal and external views have to be questioned with respect to
stereotyping, romanticism, prejudice etc. The interviews will also serve as a
base of documentation of the exclusion and have to be put into relation with
the state process that created and fomented this exclusion. They will also
provide hints as to the process that led to the changes that occurred. In
addition, these interviews will also provide information on the culture and
identity of the various groups.
The
interviewed persons will be chosen by regions, language, age and gender so as
to achieve a balanced and representative sample of the population at large. The
long terms contacts of the researcher with these minorities will allow them
both the access and the possibility to conduct those interviews in original
language.
The
reconstruction of specific cases documented in archives have to be related to
the views and souvenirs of members of those minorities. Generational changes of
attitudes shall be researched – for example the changes between victims of the
action “Kinder der Landstrasse”, Holocaust victims, early migrants who arrived
in Switzerland from various countries etc. shall be contrasted with the views
of their children and grand-children who have grown up under very different
conditions.
The
documents stemming from the various levels and sources described above will be
analysed in view of the various periods and changes as presented in Fig. 1 to
understand the dynamics and source of the interaction of the various
levels and regroup them in a model
presented here in its simplest graphical form.
1.3.2 Specific Questions – Research Points
The following questions,
points will occupy an important part of our research, within the framework and
timeline that we are planning to study. A short description of each of these
items is given in this paragraph:
i.
Language and language pattern such as multiple mother tongues, forms of
language within the group, dialects (interactions, vocabulary, evolution),
patterns of communication within and outside of the groups, status of these
languages in Switzerland, various media under all their aspects related to
language and linguistic interactions will be the subject of detailed analyses.
ii.
The development of the legal status of Jenische, Sinti and Rroma in
Switzerland will be central to our research and will be analysed at factual and
personal level in view of the direct or indirect discrimination and in view of
efforts to remedy this situation.
iii.
The economical and social stature of the various forms of trades and
activities of travelers will be documented in further details. The following
questions will be central to this theme: Which groups exercised which trades
during which of the relevant periods (traveling salesman, distribution, sale of
home-made articles, acting, music, recycling, day labourer, trade etc.)? Where
there differing rules and regulations depending on the origin of the people
(for example between Jews and Jenische)? How large was the number of people of
a group directly involved in such activities? How big an influence on the
self-views of that group as well as on the stereotypes of others did these
activities take, this especially in the case of trades that were exercised also
by the general population (for example in various Swiss regions – Berner
Oberland)? What influences did economical cycles have on such trades? Who were the producers and who delivered the
ware that was sold by these salesmen? What are the difference between these
professions in urban or in more remote regions? What influence did the
industrialization, the new transport possibilities (train, car) and
communication possibilities (phone, mobile phone) have on these trades?
Regional differences as well as gender related issues shall be studied. There
are several hints that the distribution of work and duties within a family was
organised differently among these minorities as in the general population. The
question of gender related cultural differences between the various groups of
these minorities is also of interest.
iv.
The generalisation of mandatory schooling has to be analysed in view of
its use as a mean to homogenise, to acculturate and to assimilate minorities.
This especially in view of its effect on children of Jenische, Sinti and Rroma,
and of the various other forms of repression and of the effect of pedagogic,
psychiatric and social measures on the chance of members of these minorities to
access various educational directions.
v.
The removal of children from Jenische families, documented as early as
1825 in Lucerne but also in other places way before the foundation of the
„Hilfswerks für die Kinder der Lanstrasse“ shall be analysed in further details
through the various periods that we have deribed earlier. In the case of the
“Hilfswerk”, our focus will be centred on those cantons that are supporting
this project. Other questions such as to why cantons such as Uri and Zug did
not engage in forced removal while others such as Graubünden and Tessin show a
large number of victims as well as other regional differences (for example
Romandie / rest of Switzerland). One also needs to understand whether children
that were removed from their families and interned in orphanages were
effectively and permanently separated from their families.
vi.
From various graphical sources (photos, pictures, caricatures, movies),
the various tendencies of the representation of Gypsies in Switzerland shall be analysed.
vii.
Literary
tendencies in the representation of Jenische, Sinti and Rroma shall be analysed
based on the various works of Swiss authors from various periods such as
Pestalozzi, Schiller, Gotthelf, Keller, Hartmann, Minder, Lienert, Inglin,
Frisch, Dürrenmatt, Böni, Steiner, Walter and Mehr.
1.
Significance of the planned work
1.1.Scientific
significance
The project aims at closing gaps in the current
research. One of its aims is to point at potentially overseen gaps in current theories
and views as well as to raise new questions. The currently available research
on the subject will be re-capitulated and critically analysed especially in
view of the question as to how science could and did lend its support to
various attempts at assimilation, even destruction of the culture and
traditions of entire groups. This project will grant a voice to the minorities
it studies. Forgotten stories, views on the subject hall be presented and
ordered within the historical framework we plan. The project will be open to
both oral and written sources and will contrast those. While the project aims
at a scientific audience, it also aims at a large public going beyond
specialists such as school, administrations, representatives of various groups
or of the majority, media, etc.
1.2.Social
and economic significance
This research will sharpen the minds towards mechanisms
aimed at exclusion and discrimination. It will document the often difficult
story of minorities between exclusion and integration and provide a fist
account of the already achieved steps and of the work that remains to be done.
It will help the majority to understand and accept minorities. Mutual respect
and understanding, multiple cultures, variety is an enrichment for all while
the opposite tendencies to exclude people based on gender, religion, language,
racial appurtenance and cultural intolerance are a burden on society as a
whole, and have a negative influence on science as such. The project shall
analyse theories, stereotypes, in view of nowadays concepts but also how,
during the different phases that we are describing, one arrived at this new
views and acceptance.